A Summary On Tragedy - 2914 Words

Hannah Fraser HC 223H Goldberg 03 June 2015 As a summary of the quarter’s work, write an essay that presents your answer to the question of the day, ‘Is tragedy (still) possible?’ Be specific in your definitions, and illustrate your points with examples drawn from class material and anything else you may find helpful. The Foundations of a Tragedy For centuries the only definition of tragedy available to critics was found through Aristotle’s Poetics. Rarely were the ideas of Aristotle challenged and his explanation of a tragic work established the format of tragedy. Aristotle was never questioned and thus his explanation of tragedy stood for centuries however, as literature develops the requirements of a tragedy have begun to change. In current tragedies not all tragic heroes suffer because of a specific tragic error, not all tragic plots contain scenes of recognition, and not all heroes are recognized individuals. Numerous types of dramas have developed over time that do not satisfy all of Aristotle’s requirements however are still considered tragedy. Modern tragedies do not satisfy all of the requirements of tragedy as described by Aristotle. However, they allow an audience to feel pain and closely connect to the characters. In modern times a tragic hero is no longer required to be a prestigious and elite character, but instead a relatable and common man such as Willy Loman in Death of a Salesman. It is rare to find a chorus in a modern tragedy, however in modern cinemaShow MoreRelatedTragedy Of The Commons Summary931 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Tragedy of the Commons† What is Garrett Hardin’s central idea in this article? The central idea of â€Å"The Tragedy of the Commons† is that, to ensure an acceptable, general quality of life, the human race must limit its population growth, ultimately through means of coercion. To reach this conclusion, Hardin works through multiple assumptions and their various conclusions. First is that we live in a world of finite resources. No amount of technical, technological, or agricultural innovation willRead MoreSummary Of Internal Suspense In The Tragedy Of Macbeth883 Words   |  4 PagesMany of the notable events that occurred in The Tragedy of Macbeth were solely based off of the mental aspect of situations- numerous characters experience internal conflicts, which indeed drives them to insanity. For instance, these interior events can hold the feeling of suspense, through providing tension and anticipation in the character’s thoughts in the rising action of the play; Lady Macbeth’s suspense begins as she influences Macbeth to kill for her own benefit. 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Web. 24 Apr. 2014. http://www.gradesaver.com/othello/study-guide/section2/. Shmoop Editorial Team. Romeo and Juliet Summary. Shmoop.com. Shmoop University, Inc., 11 Nov. 2008. Web. 23 AprRead MoreThe Highwayman1334 Words   |  6 Pagesdrawn on in outlining your point. c. Extended reasoning (elaborate on your point). Here you reason through the logic of your point in more depth. Extend reasoning allows you to explain and justify further why the poet has made such a choice. d. Summary sentence. Your concluding sentence should summarise the central idea presented and link to the thesis. | BODY PARAGRAPH 1a. Firstly, the content of the ballad â€Å"The Highwayman† communicates an important message that forbidden love can only bringRead MoreThe Chorus as a Homonym 1168 Words   |  5 Pagesreminder is when the Prologue steps forward from the Chorus and describes each character and provides a quick plot summary of what is to come. The distancing of the audience from the play is effective because it aids them to think more deeply about the choices that Antigone makes and the value of her choice to die rather than focus solely on the tragedy of her death. A critic of tragedies could argue that this distancing through metatheatre â€Å"destroys the tragic impact† of the play, but if one looksRead MoreMusà ©e des Beaux Arts by W. H. Auden Essay1106 Words   |  5 Pagesup, to see what is actually going on. Auden illustrates societies’ indifference to human suffering through the form of his poem and by alluding to artwork that compares human perceptions and juxtaposes ordinary images with images of suffering and tragedy. The form of Musà ©e des Beaux Arts plays an influential role in the way the poem’s content is conveyed. Auden’s poem appears to be divided into two separate parts. The first thirteen lines provide the reader with a general overview or introductionRead MoreThe Symbolism Of Ophelia s Hamlet 1500 Words   |  6 Pages Prescribed Question: How could the text be read and interpreted differently by two different readers? Text Analyzed: Shakespeare’s Hamlet Part of the Course to Which the Text Corresponds to: Part 4 Thesis: In Shakespeare’s tragedy, Hamlet, Ophelia’s role would be interpreted as a plot device by a modern English woman and as a victim by an Elizabethan woman. This would occur because of their understanding of the symbolism of Ophelia’s actions in madness, the context surrounding Hamlet’s view ofRead MoreEssay on The Evil Character Medea in Euripides Medea585 Words   |  3 PagesEvil Character Medea in Euripides Medea Euripides created a two-headed character in this classical tragedy. Medea begins her marriage as the ideal loving wife who sacrificed much for her husbands safety. At the peak of the reading, she becomes a murderous villain that demands respect and even some sympathy. By the end, the husband and wife are left devoid of love and purpose as the tragedy closes. In Medea, a woman betrays her homeland because of her love for a man. Jason is the husband thatRead MoreOthello: A Covert Discussion on Racism Essay1625 Words   |  7 PagesCassio, who summons Othello to the Duke of Venice’s palace. What is a tragedy? According to Wikipedia â€Å"Tragedy is a form of art based on human suffering that, paradoxically, offers its audience pleasure. . . tragedy refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of Western civilization.† (Wikipedia). During his early career Shakespeare focused mainly on tragedy for his early plays. We see this from the most famous Romeo and Juliet

The Scientific Revolution Free Essays

There should be balance, in any essay which deals with events in history, between the dry, chronological facts, and the â€Å"soul† of the event (s) in question. If an essay on a subject of history relies too much on mere historical data and fails to personalize or — in a sense — humanize the concepts and facts which are the meat and bones of the essay, then the loss of emotion and empathy on behalf of the reader will preclude their maintaining an avid interest in the facts, no matter how skilfully presented. Unfortunately, in the essay â€Å"The Significance of the Scientific Revolution,† absolutely no â€Å"human† detail is added to the generally overwhelming flow of dry data and historical fact. We will write a custom essay sample on The Scientific Revolution or any similar topic only for you Order Now The ommission of details, even details regarding dates, persons, and events is less egregious than the ommission of any personal feeling or â€Å"human interest† detail which might have been included alongside the presentation of the key events of what is known, historically, as The Scientific Revolution. In â€Å"The Significance of the Scientific Revolution,† the reader is shown a summation of what might be best thought of as the â€Å"key exterior† events of the Scientific Revolution. These key events are presented without any degree of ‘fleshing out† which makes it very difficult to imagine the real-life impact of the events and historical evolution which the essay attempts to describe. the lack of personalization extends to the essay’s thesis, or rather, to its lack of a thesis. The idea that the Scientific Revolution was a major historical watershed for human evolution is not a thesis, but rather a statement of what is obvious. Due to its lack of any tangible thesis of humanizing element, the essay, as it stands, presents no verifiable argument and is, at best, a weak summation of chronological events. Age of Enlightenment Although it is tempting for some observers to sum up historical eras into neat and tidy packages, this temptation is a dangerous one because it often leads to over-generalization and the loss of important historical specificity, much of which may run as a counterpoint or counter-vision to the observer’s original, categorical understanding. In the essay â€Å"The Age of Enlightenment† generalization is the rule, and the resultant loss of historical specifics (and therefore accuracy) is the most obvious criticism which may be leveled at the essay. To begin with, the essay offers the view in its opening paragraph that the Age of Enlightenment was uniformly a positivistic era in history: â€Å"peasants and nobles were no longer bound by their feudal obligations. The philosophers of the Enlightenment felt bound to their secular views based from human understanding and reason only. These thinkers hoped that the period would bring positive changes to every aspect of thought and life† (Enlightenment, 1). While this summation may be generally true, it is a drastic oversimplification of the slow evolution of human rights which began before the â€Å"Age of Enlightenment† and continues right on through to modern times. The author goes on to make several unsubstantiated points: for example, â€Å"the age of Enlightenment was the light that shined on the corruption during the middle ages caused by the Catholic Church† as well as misleading or imprecise diction â€Å"The people behind the age of Enlightenment† (Enlightenment, 1). Basically, the author of the essay has taken a very generalized view, overall, of what the historical Age of Enlightenment really was and in addition, the author has compounded the looseness of their overall argument by using imprecise terms and vague substantiation through secondary sources. Unfortunately, the essay, although logical and put together in a streamlined and linear fashion, offers very little substantive information and may, in fact, be misleading to someone who read the essay hoping to understand the Age of Enlightenment from a genuinely historical perspective. How to cite The Scientific Revolution, Papers

Manage International Marketing Programs

Question: Discuss about the Manage International Marketing Programs. Answer: 1. As per Fawcett et al. (2014), Supply Chain Management is the procedure through which an organization maximizes its customer value by increasing the competitive advantages by streamlining the supply chain activities of the organization. Amway is a company shares a curious relationship with the international business owners of the company because they engage their sellers in direct selling processes. This form of selling permits each owners of the business to concentrate on individual consumer needs. The consumers do not have to visit shops to buy the products because the sellers deliver the product directly to the consumers. Amway manufactures their brand and product so they distribute their products directly to the customers that are why their supply chain is unique. In traditional supply chain raw materials is supplied to the manufacturer and then to the retailer and finally to the consumers. However, Amway on the other hand encourages their sellers to apply direct selling approa ch. 2. Amway provides their business owners with the flexibility to work from anywhere and anytime they want. They can approach their acquaintances or people they know or have met and sale their products to any one they want to. They personally contact their customers and provide individual attention to them that is a significant element of the service furnished by the company. In order to supply super first and efficient service to the customer they need the ready access to a proficient supply chain (Lee, Tai and Sheen 2013). Increasing use of the internet has created real potential for businesses to develop innovative types of business models so that they can deliver quick service to the customers by delivering the products to their homes. Amway was well placed to make such a move because the people of UK and Europe uses internet intensively (Monczka et al. 2015). Amway takes orders from the customers and directly supply the product to customers. This way they can work according to con venience of the customers. 3. The people of UK and Europe have increased their use of internet. Extended use of internet has helped Amway in expanding their business and developing different kind of business models (Tayur et al. 2012). Amway developed e-commerce opportunities that would offer 24 hour for 7 days service to the customer. Having received supporting merchandising materials, literature and training so that they know the best way to promote the features and benefits of Amway product, IBOs order the product direct from Amway having taken an order from their customer. This way Amway meets customer preferences. The organization has merchandises in their stock so that the IBOs can order the supplies from their site after taking order from the customers. There are more than 3.3 million distributors in more than 80 countries and territories and with own branded products ranging from Artistry. They have faced a huge challenge in providing customers with products in right time, in the right place and in rig ht condition. Finally, Amway made a strategic decision to make their logistic chain more efficient. Amway grouped countries together wherever possible to link parts of the business in a way that would serve customer needs. 4. Amway knows that the independent business owners are entrepreneurial individuals who want to sell quality products to the people they know or meet. Most also fall in ABC categories of social economic group. Research revealed that many IBOs felt they needed more support for their selling activities (Bamborough et al. 2014). In particular, they wanted quick, secure access to more accurate, up to date information that related specifically to them. Amway understood that well constructed, well thought out internet option is the way to fulfill the needs of the customer and the entrepreneurs. Mt. Romance is the worlds leading sandal wood industry. It is situated on the west Australia, is listed on the American Securities Exchange, and currently manages over 5,000 hectares sandalwood plantation. Marketing research is the scrutinizing of marketable aspects of a company in the global market. A fortifying business plan needs analyzing and evaluating of the customer demographics, buying habits and tendency of acceptability of new product and service (Samli 2013). The process of evaluating starts with answering to certain questions. As an International, marketing manager needs to understand the market in which the company wants to do business. The potentiality of the industry is deduced by evaluating the market where the company wants to set up their market (Stark 2015). Mt. romance is a sandalwood cosmetic factory, ayurvedic and natural products are gaining great market opportunities, as most of the people across the world are favoring natural products over products that conte nt chemical. Mt. Romance needs to assess the demographics of the market in order to choose target customers. The products that are manufactures under the label of Mt. Romance are cosmetics so the company should mainly focus on female consumers and prioritize their need and expectations from the product. Products of Mt. Romance Mt. Romance manufactures wide range of products that are based on sandalwood oil. Sandalwood oil is the prime element that makes the product so unique. Every product the company produces is herbal and that is why the company has remarkable progress in global market. Mt. Romance is slowly gaining popularity because they use distilled sandalwood oil that is good for skin and health. Their products like Sandalwood soy candles, beauty enhancement products like lipstick and products for aromatherapy can make great success in the global market. Target Market Mt. romance can launch their product in any part of the world as they have variety is product. However, it is significant for an international marketer to choose the target market wisely. Success of the company depends on how well the marketer has scrutinized the market before launching the product. As per the research, in United States there were 46.2 percentages of sales of lipstick according to the global cosmetics market in 2014. The market of lipstick was worth $7.15 billion in 2014 and it is about to increase by 3.59 percentage of CAGR during 2015-2019. So it is evident that it will be effective for Mt. Romance to launch their product in United States as it is a developed country and the according to the income standards of the people of the country, the company will gain profit beyond expectation. Malaysia is a country that has centers and resorts that provides a wide range of treatments and therapeutic treatments. Mt. Romance can launch their aromatherapy products in Malaysia. The International marketer needs to analyze the target market so that they can know about the preferences of the consumer and launch their label according to their needs. Canada has market demand for scented candles and last year around Canada generated around $2.3 billion dollars by selling aromat ic candles. The researchers say that the sales of aromatic candles have risen by 14 percent since 2011 (Gold 2013) . This is the reason the international marketer should consider this countries to launch their products. International Scope: Mt. romance is a company that manufactures products that are made of Sandalwood oil. Their products are very famous in Australia as they are herbal and are made of natural elements that have health benefits. While marketing, the primary component is the product. The company needs to plan and implement strategy in order to construct the market profile of the product. According to Firat et al. (2014), Market segmentation, product research, demographic evaluation and product development procedure are the activities that planning comprises. Branding is essential as it gives the product the public profile and assists discerning its value. Mt. Romance is a reputed brand and it has great market scope as it has right properties of marketing mix. Mt. romance has sandal wood factory where the products are manufactured. They have tour facilities that give an insight to the history of the industry. They hosts website and very much associated with Social writing. They import tones of sandalwood o il to Europe and Asia every year. The cosmetics, fragrances and healthcare products of Mt. Romance have great prospect in global market. The products meet consumer demand and the prices of the products are reasonable. The company promotes the product by advertising and offers discount coupons on the products. Key performance indicator: Mt. romance is the company that is rapidly climbing the sales market. The international marketer needs to assess the market carefully. The performance level of the company should be deduced in order to understand the position of the company in order to specify the goal of the company (Warner et al. 2013). The goal should be set considering the revenue target of the company. A company that has sufficient financial back up to complete their financial obligation for 12 months period is a healthy company. Sales growth metric is 20 percent this year but the company is trying raise its sales to 50 percent. Mt. Romance needs to gain market demand for its health products. Product and Promotion adaptation: Social media and new media: Mt. Romance promotes loyalty that they provide to the customer. The company has its website where they have updates about their latest products. According to Nikseresht et al. (2015), The Company should engage in blog writing and content writing about the product. Non-Media Promotion: The Company needs to put up hoardings in different places about their products. Segmentation: Mt. Romance is selling sandalwood products. The company should segment the market according to the preference of the consumer. Operational Market structure: Online marketing will be fruitful for this company because the company wants to flourish internationally and to fulfill the demand of the customers. According to Gold (2013), online marketing is the best way to market a product. Marketing Objectives: Marketing objectives are the techniques that an organization utilizes in order to promote a product or service to the customers who are eligible to buy (Svensson 2015). Mt. Romance is an Australian company that manufactures product of sandalwood oil. The objective of the company is to increase the profitability of the distributors. Romance want to increase customer satisfaction by supplying them quality product and side by side increase revenue of the company The company wants to promote products that are unique and chose different target market for different product. For example after assessing the sales report of past 3-4 years they have seen launching aromatic products in Malaysia will help them gain market position in that place. KPI KPI is the tool that is used to measure the effectiveness of a business procedure at achieving the key business goals (Taylor 2013). Mt. Romance is an organization that has gained fame for their sandalwood products. The organization is commanding the world market with their sandalwood product. They have great local demand. There is information they make huge extraction of sandalwood oil and they encourage promotion of sandalwood industry with the assistance of information flow. Mt. Romance uses technology so that they can improvise the products and generate high productivity. There is robust demand for the products because they are prestigious and there are innumerable consumers who are capable of bearing such high cost. Mt. Romance is the leading grower of sandalwood and produces products from sandalwood oils. Qualitative and quantitative assessment is necessary to set goals. They need to investigate the variances and modifying resources to achieve the short-term goals. Pricing poli cy needs to be checked according to the target market. Constant revenue growth is necessary so that they can be victorious in both long term and short-term goals. Executive Summary: International marketer professionals seek solution and recommend the organization the best way of promoting a product. The international marketer scrutinizes the culture, tradition and mannerism of other countries because it is necessary to get familiar with those in order to launch the products successfully. An overview of the marketing objectives: The marketing objective of Mt. Romance is to increase its sales from 40% to 50%. Mt. Romance needs to create brand awareness among the target markets. Mt. Romance wants to launch their product in international countries like Malaysia, Canada and US. The market culture of the three countries are different that is why international marketer also have to think about strategy to enhance the bond with the customers. Target markets: Mt. Romance wants to create international market place for their products. Malaysia provides extensive spa services; Mt. Romance can launch their aromatic product. Canadian market has demand for scented candles Mt. Romance can open their candle business there. United State is highest in lipstick selling, Mt. romance can do launch their range of lipstick in US. Key economic, social/ or political trends in the target market Malaysia is a multicultural country and they are socially receptive. Political condition is stable in Malaysia that is why business culture is flourishing in their country. People of the Malaysia visit spa frequently. That is why aromatic products of Mt. Romance can gain great market attention in Malaysia. Strength and weakness of International marketing By international marketing, Mt. Romance can expand their market internationally and boost the value of their brand. International marketing also helps in increasing sales of the company (Fletcher and Crawford 2013). Sometimes the political condition of the country where the company wants to do business affects the business venture. Key Stakeholders and their roles and responsibilities Givaudan signed up an agreement to indulge into partnership business with Mt. Romance. The role of the stakeholder is to supply good practice and liable sourcing for Mt. Romance. The stakeholder is funding the company so that they can provide equipments for the harvesters that support environmental friendly harvesting methods. The investors and member of the boards should jointly take the major corporate decisions. Internal Communication strategy Business partners should strategically plan their goals according to the priority of the company goals (Welch 2015). The business partners should communicate with the employees and elucidate them about the organizational goals. Key results/success areas and priorities The key area should be clear, specific, and most importantly well measured. Prospecting is a significant. For example, Salesperson can find and contact potential customers to sale their products. Building trust, rapport with the target market so that they learn about the product and service the company provides (Moreno-Vozmediano, Montero and Llorente, 2013). If Mt. Romance concentrates on the key areas, they can promote their products in international market successfully. The company can increase their sustainability rate by implementing flexibility and meeting customer expectation. Management support and resources The manager should provide both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to the employees so that they can increase productivity. Mt. Romance has a supportive work culture and employees thrive in their work environment. Financial viability of international marketing activities Mt. Romance has a stable financial condition that is why they can operate long-term goals and fulfill objectives under any condition. According to Kobayakawa and Kandpal (2014), financial viability is important to conquer long-term goals. Risk management strategy to manage contingencies According to Bessis and O'Kelly (2015), a company should have an effective contingency planning to recover from major disaster. The company has effective software to store data about customers and suppliers. The management of Mt. Romance plans budget before promoting the products of the company so that they can utilize their resources effectively. Product pricing and distribution policies The price of the products pricing is done reflecting on the income structure of the consumers of the country (Simons 2013). Product selling procedure should be made based on Australian government consumer protection law. Progress monitoring mechanism, including software Stakeholder needs to monitor effectively the planning and manufacturing activities. Reviewing is the procedures through which operational issues are focused. Mt. romance has a efficient team and group of stakeholders who regularly check on this matters. Performance analysis and evaluation According to Azzopardi and Nash (2013), Marketer is responsible for analyzing the performance of the employees that helps the employers to assess their contribution towards the organization. Reference: Azzopardi, E. and Nash, R., 2013. A critical evaluation of importanceperformance analysis.Tourism Management,35, pp.222-233. Bamborough, D.L., Blodgett, J.G., Dangl, W.R., Horder-Koop, R.A., Hunking, J.P., McDonald, K.J., Parker, J.P., Savage, K.K., Zevalkink, C.E. and Paasche, T.D., Amway Corp., 2014.Electronic commerce transactions within a marketing system that may contain a membership buying opportunity. U.S. Patent 8,666,838. Bessis, J. and O'Kelly, B., 2015.Risk management in banking. John Wiley Sons. Fawcett, S.E., Ellram, L.M. and Ogden, J.A., 2014.Supply chain management: from vision to implementation. London: Pearson. Firat, A., Ozaltin Turker, G. and Metin, I., 2014. Specification of target market in small and medium scale accommodation businesses: a study on boutique hotels operating in city of Mugla.Tourismos,9(2). Fletcher, R. and Crawford, H., 2013.International marketing: an Asia-Pacific perspective. Pearson Higher Education AU. Gold, R.S., 2013, November. Positioning of social marketing on the nation's health agenda: Looking forward. In141st APHA Annual Meeting (November 2-November 6, 2013). APHA. Kobayakawa, T. and Kandpal, T.C., 2014. A techno-economic optimization of decentralized renewable energy systems: Trade-off between financial viability and affordabilityA case study of rural India.Energy for Sustainable Development,23, pp.92-98. Lee, K.L., Tai, C.T. and Sheen, G.J., 2013. Using LSS to improve the efficiency and quality of a refund process in a logistics center.International Journal of Lean Six Sigma,4(4), pp.409-424. Monczka, R., Handfield, R., Giunipero, L. and Patterson, J., 2015.Purchasing and supply chain management. Cengage Learning. Moreno-Vozmediano, R., Montero, R.S. and Llorente, I.M., 2013. Key challenges in cloud computing: Enabling the future internet of services.Internet Computing, IEEE,17(4), pp.18-25. Nikseresht, F., Aminbeidokhti, A. and Alizadeh, P., 2015. Codification of Effective Tourism Destination Advertising Strategies by an Emphasis on Domestic Target Market and It's Effect on The Number of Tourists (Case Study: Shiraz).Asian Journal of Research in Marketing,4(1), pp.135-141. Samli, A.C., 2013. International Consumer Learning Is Different in Different Cultures. InInternational Consumer Behavior in the 21st Century(pp. 135-142). Springer New York. Simons, R., 2013.Levers of control: how managers use innovative control systems to drive strategic renewal. Harvard Business Press. Stark, J., 2015.Product lifecycle management(pp. 1-29). Springer International Publishing. Svensson, G., 2015. Time-dependence and Relationship-dependence Between Firms in Marketing Channels. InProceedings of the 2000 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual Conference(pp. 33-39). Springer International Publishing. Taylor, C., 2013. Examining the relationships between kpi technology factor and ict/enterprise alignment. Tayur, S., Ganeshan, R. and Magazine, M. eds., 2012.Quantitative models for supply chain management(Vol. 17). Springer Science Business Media. Warner, M.W., Warner, L.E. and Pangburn, R.L., 2013.System and method for a target market business structure. U.S. Patent Application 14/022,005. Welch, M., 2015. Dimensions of internal communication and implications for employee engagement.

Marley and Me free essay sample

Marley and me: life and love with the world’s worst dog is a New York Times best-selling novel written by John Grogan , a journalist and also a non-fiction writer in America. The book , published in 2005 , is more a autobiographical book than a novel because the whole story is based on the author’s personal experience with his beloved dog Marley. So , the author John Grogan and his wife Jenny , are also the leading characters in Marley and me . The book is such a hit that in 2008 a movie was adapted from it , which also is very successful. Told in first-person narrative , the book focuses on the 13 years that John and his family spent with their dog Marley. As we can see from the subtitle of the book : life and love with the world’s worst dog , Marley is not an obedient dog. It is portrayed as a boisterous , uncontrolled yellow Labrador. We will write a custom essay sample on Marley and Me or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page A new couple , John and Jenny , were thinking about having a baby. Lack of experience , they decided to raise a dog to practise being parents because taking care of a dog , just like a baby, requires patience and attention. So that is how Marley became a new member of the family. Marley was so naughty that it was always hungry and destructive of furniture. But the couple forgave it and loved it even more . As life went on with Marley , the couple decided to have their first baby . Unfortunately , Jenny had an abortion when carrying the first baby. Life was tough but Marley was always there for them. Frustrated as they were , they decided to tried again and luckily they had three children later on . Life is happy for the couple. Years elapsed before the couple realized that Marley was no longer a puppy, but an old dog. Marley was no longer naughty , boisterous as it was . It was a sad moment in the story when John had to give permission to the vet to put Marley to sleep forever. The whole family were depressed but they knew it was best for Marley. The whole family missed Marley so much that after Marley’s death , they raised another dog which greatly resembles Marley. The author himself once described Marley : In good times and bad , in sickness and health, we didn’t give up on Marley and so it was to us , and in the end he came through and proved himself a great and memorable pet. Marley and me is not a book mainly focuses on the pet , but on life and love with the pet. What is special in this book is that it seldom tells you that Marley is growing up . Instead, the author tells story about John and Jenny year after year. Thirteen years is quite a long journey for everyone. Maybe the couple never realized how different life would be if they didn’t decide to raise Marley or any other dog. Marley is so unique and special to the couple because Marley accompanied them for thirteen years. In thirteen years , many memorable things happened. When they hanged their job , when they got a promotion, when they bought a new house , when they had a really tough time when losing their first baby , when they first became parents , Marley was always there , living under the same roof with them and shared with them their happiness or bitterness. Life is a bittersweet symphony. Whatever life it is for the couple, Marley was with them. In spite of the fact that Marley was extremely naughty and boisterous , the couple didn’t abandon it . The pet and the family were bound up with each other , experiencing the taste of life together. That is the reason why Marley meant so much to John, Jenny and their children and also explains why the subtitle of Marley and me would be : life and love with the world’s worst dog. The book uses the story between Marley and the couple as a framework for talking about life, love and the struggles of beginning a marriage, starting a family and making the most of every moment , which I think is the best success of Marley and me. If it simply describes how lovely and naughty Marley is , it may only appeal to people who are fond of pets. But Marley and me is not that kind of book. If you don’t like dogs, you can still enjoy the book very much because the book reflects on life , which makes you ponder after reading it. Because it is a book based on true stories , the language of Marley and me is so vivid and heart-felt as if you could see how time flies in this precious 13 years. Marley used to be energetic , but as time went on , Marley began to cripple onto the stage and gradually lost its hearing. It a story about Marley’s whole life and a precious phase of the young couple. No one is flawless, so is the dog. But once you have been a member of a family, you never give up on each other . Instead , you choose to support and accompany them whether they are happy or they are depressed. Though John often refers to Marley as â€Å"the world’s worst dog† in the book , Marley and him come to share an unbreakable bond. Marley and me is not just a story between John and his dog, but a story between John and his best friend , who has accompanies him for 13 years and also brought so much joy as well as trouble to him.

Mp3 Piracy Essays - File Sharing, Music Piracy, Free Essays

Mp3 Piracy Essays - File Sharing, Music Piracy, Free Essays Mp3 Piracy In this digital world, the idea of obtaining any materialistic pleasures with a computer is simply amazing to me. It initiates an already growing problem with scarcity and unlimited wants. The fact that everyone with a computer could have free music all the time is quite appealing? Of course, as with anything else, there are limits to what enjoyment we can have by suggesting that we are being morally judged. This seems to be the hidden question behind all the other piracy-related jargon. MP3 piracy and the moral fibers that bind us together are changing our lives right in front of us, while technology is bringing us closer realizing it. Those who produce intellectual property and those who benefit from it are currently debating the implications it may have on the future of online music. There are basically two sides to the issue. On the one hand, there are those corporate monsters that scream copyright infringement and push with litigation. The recording industry, for the most part, suggests that it is wrong to copy works from others and perhaps return profits for them. This is the basic notion that ideas have value. The primary concern for these people is the lack of revenue from the sale of music albums in stores. They encourage legislation for the sole purpose of protecting their own interests. They dont agree with web sites distributing free music files of which have copyright protection. Moreover, the record industry is investing in new media venture, and seeking partners, to develop online music services for its consumers. This may indeed be the unbalancing of the arguments because they have more influence over government decisions than do the consumers. They can advise governments on the laws needed to protect artists and their creations. In contrast, there are those consumer groups that feel it is a good way to promote little-known artists music, thus becoming the springboard for their shot at success. The same could be said of struggling artists, as well. Those artists that lost their appeal to the changing of society could promote their contribution to the industry, perhaps giving them another shot. For example, a recent Spin article stated that 30% of long-time struggling artists have gradually regained recognition as a result of free access to their music. Therefore, listeners could sample their music for free and decide if they have made some sort of comeback, not to mention whether or not they are worth the inflated prices of album-length CDs. These people, concerned with corporate price fixing, feel that listeners could hear particular songs and not have to pay full price for an album that may have only two or three songs that appeal to them. This is what you call self-interest. The concern would have to be wh ether there is profit sharing going on or not, such as resale of copyrighted songs. This would be the illegal aspect of this issue. However you judge this issue, both sides, both arguments hold water. News Summary As discussed earlier, the particular Spin article I came across, among many others, focused on the future of the recording industry and the subsequent effects it will have on consumer activity. The article suggests, for all intensive purposes, that the decision to accept or reject the issue should be based on intent rather than simply the act of downloading the copyrighted music, as well as the distribution of the necessary devices. It further predicts the fate of the music industry not being overrun as a result of Internet sharing, but rather as an assisting device to promote and eventually helping to sell the music. It suggests, for example, a possible way that the record companies could still turn a profit such as the concept of pay-per-view. This consists of the record companies charging a fee to web sites that have MP3 distribution software. The point that this article was trying to make was that there would have to be a trade-off so as not to force the consumer market to make s uch rash decisions like music piracy. The music industry will eventually further itself into the age of the music single, thus providing songs individually and allowing consumer to compile song libraries selectively. Organizations Foremost among the

Second Seminole War, 1835-1842

Second Seminole War, 1835-1842 Having ratified the Adams-Onà ­s Treaty in 1821, the United States officially purchased Florida from Spain. Taking control, American officials concluded the Treaty of Moultrie Creek two years later which established a large reservation in central Florida for the Seminoles. By 1827, the majority of the Seminoles had moved to the reservation and Fort King (Ocala) was constructed nearby under the guidance of Colonel Duncan L. Clinch. Though the next five years were largely peaceful, some began to call for the Seminoles to be relocated west of the Mississippi River. This was partially driven by issues revolving around the Seminoles providing sanctuary for escaped slaves, a group that became known as the Black Seminoles. In addition, the Seminoles were increasingly leaving the reservation as hunting on their lands was poor. Seeds of Conflict In an effort to eliminate the Seminole problem, Washington passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830 which called for their relocation west. Meeting at Paynes Landing, FL in 1832, officials discussed relocation with the leading Seminole chiefs. Coming to an agreement, the Treaty of Paynes Landing stated that the Seminoles would move if a council of chiefs agreed that the lands in the west were suitable. Touring the lands near the Creek Reservation, the council agreed and signed a document stating that the lands were acceptable. Returning to Florida, they quickly renounced their previous statement and claimed they had been forced to sign the document. Despite this, the treaty was ratified by the US Senate and the Seminoles were given three years complete their move. The Seminoles Attack In October 1834, the Seminole chiefs informed the agent at Fort King, Wiley Thompson, that they had no intention of moving. While Thompson began receiving reports that the Seminoles were gathering weapons, Clinch alerted Washington that force may be required to compel the Seminoles to relocate. After further discussions in 1835, some of the Seminole chiefs agreed to move, however the most powerful refused. With the situation deteriorating, Thompson cut off the sale of weapons to the Seminoles. As the year progressed, minor attacks began occurring around Florida. As these began to intensify, the territory began preparing for war. In December, in an effort to reinforce Fort King, the US Army directed Major Francis Dade to take two companies north from Fort Brooke (Tampa). As they marched, they were shadowed by the Seminoles. On December 28, the Seminoles attacked, killing all but two of Dades 110 men. That same day, a party led by the warrior Osceola ambushed and killed Thompson. Gaines Response In response, Clinch moved south and fought an inconclusive battle with the Seminoles on December 31 near their base in the Cove of the Withlacoochee River. As the war quickly escalated, Major General Winfield Scott was charged with eliminating the Seminole threat. His first action was to direct Brigadier General Edmund P. Gaines to attack with a force of around 1,100 regulars and volunteers. Arriving at Fort Brooke from New Orleans, Gaines troops began moving towards Fort King. Along the way, they buried the bodies of Dades command. Arriving at Fort King, they found it short on supplies. After conferring with Clinch, who was based at Fort Drane to the north, Gaines elected to return to Fort Brooke via the Cove of the Withlacoochee River. Moving along the river in February, he engaged the Seminoles in mid-February. Unable to advance and knowing there were no supplies at Fort King, he elected to fortify his position. Hemmed in, Gaines was rescued in early March by Clinchs men who had c ome down from Fort Drane (Map). Scott in the Field With Gaines failure, Scott elected to take command of operations in person. A hero of the War of 1812, he planned a large-scale campaign against the Cove which called for 5,000 men in three columns to strike the area in concert. Though all three columns were supposed to be in place on March 25, delays ensued and they were not ready until March 30. Traveling with a column led by Clinch, Scott entered the Cove but found that the Seminole villages had been abandoned. Short on supplies, Scott withdrew to Fort Brooke. As the spring progressed, Seminole attacks and the incidence of disease increased compelling the US Army to withdraw from key posts such as Forts King and Drane. Seeking to turn the tide, Governor Richard K. Call took the field with a force of volunteers in September. While an initial campaign up the Withlacoochee failed, a second in November saw him engage the Seminoles in the Battle of Wahoo Swamp. Unable to advance during the fighting, Call fell back to Volusia, FL. Jesup in Command On December 9, 1836, Major General Thomas Jesup relieved Call. Victorious in the Creek War of 1836, Jesup sought to grind down the Seminoles and his forces ultimately increased to around 9,000 men. Working in conjunction with the US Navy and Marine Corps, Jesup began to turn American fortunes. On January 26, 1837, American forces won a victory at Hatchee-Lustee. Shortly thereafter, the Seminole chiefs approached Jesup regarding a truce. Meeting in March, an agreement was reached which would allow the Seminoles to move west with their negroes, [and] their bona fide property. As the Seminoles came into camps, they were accosted by slave catchers and debt collectors. With relations again worsening, two Seminole leaders, Osceola and Sam Jones, arrived and led away around 700 Seminoles. Angered by this, Jesup resumed operations and began sending raiding parties into Seminole territory. In the course of these, his men captured the leaders King Philip and Uchee Billy. In an effort to conclude the issue, Jesup began resorting to trickery to capture Seminole leaders. In October, he arrested King Philips son, Coacoochee, after forcing his father to write a letter requesting a meeting. That same month, Jesup arranged for a meeting with Osceola and Coa Hadjo. Though the two Seminole leaders arrived under a flag of truce, they were quickly taken prisoner. While Osceola would die of malaria three months later, Coacoochee escaped from captivity. Later that fall, Jesup used a delegation of Cherokees to draw out additional Seminole leaders so that they could be arrested. At the same time, Jesup worked to build a large military force. Divided into three columns, he sought to force the remaining Seminoles south. One of these columns, led by Colonel Zachary Taylor encountered a strong Seminole force, led by Alligator, on Christmas Day. Attacking, Taylor won a bloody victory at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee. As Jesups forces united and continued their campaign, a combined Army-Navy force fought a bitter battle at Jupiter Inlet on January 12, 1838. Forced to fall back, their retreat was covered by Lieutenant Joseph E. Johnston. Twelve days later, Jesups army won victory nearby at the Battle of Loxahatchee. The following month, leading Seminole chiefs approached Jesup and offered to stop fighting if given a reservation in southern Florida. While Jesup favored this approach, it was declined by the War Department and he was ordered to continue fighting. As a large number of Seminoles had gathered around his camp, he informed them of Washingtons decision and quickly detained them. Tired of the conflict, Jesup asked to be relieved and was replaced by Taylor, who was promoted to brigadier general, in May. Taylor Takes Charge Operating with reduced forces, Taylor sought to protect northern Florida so that settlers could return to their homes. In an effort to secure the region, the constructed a series of small forts connected by roads. While these protected American settlers, Taylor used larger formations to seek out the remaining Seminoles. This approach was largely successful and fighting quieted during the latter part of 1838. In an effort to conclude the war, President Martin Van Buren dispatched Major General Alexander Macomb to make peace. After a slow start, negotiations finally produced a peace treaty on May 19, 1839 which allowed for a reservation in southern Florida. The peace held for a little over two months and ended when Seminoles attacked Colonel William Harneys command at a trading post along the Caloosahatchee River on July 23. In the wake of this incident, attacks and ambushes of American troops and settlers resumed. In May 1840, Taylor was granted a transfer and replaced with Brigadier General Walker K. Armistead. Increasing the Pressure Taking the offensive, Armistead campaigned in the summer despite the weather and threat of disease. Striking at Seminole crops and settlements, he sought to deprive them of supplies and sustenance. Turning over the defense of northern Florida to the militia, Armistead continued to pressure the Seminoles. Despite a Seminole raid on Indian Key in August, American forces continued the offensive and Harney conducted a successful attack into the Everglades in December. In addition to military activity, Armistead used a system of bribes and inducements to convince various Seminole leaders to take their bands west. Turning over operations to Colonel William J. Worth in May 1841, Armistead left Florida. Continuing Armisteads system of raids during that summer, Worth cleared the Cove of the Withlacoochee and much of northern Florida. Capturing Coacoochee on June 4, he used the Seminole leader to bring in those who were resisting. This proved partially successful. In November, US troops attacked into the Big Cypress Swamp and burned several villages. With fighting winding down in early 1842, Worth recommended leaving the remaining Seminoles in place if they would remain on an informal reservation in southern Florida. In August, Worth met with the Seminole leaders and offered final inducements to relocate. Believing that the last Seminoles would either move or shift to the reservation, Worth declared the war to be over on August 14, 1842. Taking leave, he turned command over to Colonel Josiah Vose. A short time later, attacks on settlers resumed and Vose was ordered to attack the bands that were still off the reservation. Concerned that such action would have a negative effect on those complying, he requested permission not to attack. This was granted, though when Worth returned in November he ordered key Seminole leaders, such as Otiarche and Tiger Tail, brought in and secured. Remaining in Florida, Worth reported in early 1843 that the situation was largely peaceful and that only 300 Seminoles, all on the reservation, remained in the territory. Aftermath During operations in Florida, the US Army suffered 1,466 killed with the majority dying of disease. Seminole losses are not known with any degree of certainty. The Second Seminole War proved to be the longest and costliest conflict with a Native American group fought by the United States. In the course of the fighting, numerous officers gained valuable experience which would serve them well in the Mexican-American War and the Civil War. Though Florida remained peaceful, authorities in the territory pressed for the full removal of the Seminoles. This pressure increased through the 1850s and ultimately led to the Third Seminole War (1855-1858).

Ethical Case Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethical Case Analysis - Essay Example It defines the organization’s role as the promotion of availability of information, freedom of speech and transparency. Hacktivism, however, does not necessarily mean criminal ventures as it includes application of websites’ links to publish information on social networks. Posts such as like a particular page for facebook to make donations towards a cause are examples. The author however simplifies its definition to application of the internet to facilitate an objective (Carter, p. 1). Anonymous is the illustrated example of hacktivist group that breaks into websites whose opinion the organization does not agree with. The group also applies its high level of skills to close down websites such as those of governments and other organizations as counter attack initiatives for actions that are offensive to its objectives. Its reaction to the temporary closure of the Wikileaks website is the recent example. The group is also involved in other mass action movements. The author however notes that most internet users in social network unknowingly participate in hackivism through following hacktivists’ directives to publish links on their social network pages (Carter, p. 1). The article identifies two moral agents. Anonymous group is identified as a specific moral agent and the social network users who engage in the type of publications as general moral agents in the case. This is because the parties’ initiatives that involve conveyance of information to the public can be determined as either right or wrong. The act can be right to the effect of truthfully criticizing an evil or advocating for a beneficial initiative but can be bad if the criticism is not based on the truth, leading to harm. Anonymous for example advocates for freedom of expression and acts in defense against authoritarian initiatives. Depending on the consequences of their actions, they can be judged as either good or bad. Actions of individuals in

Lindbergh Baby Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Lindbergh Baby Case - Essay Example There was huge attention by the media concerning the issue. As a result, Lindbergh the father of the baby permitted a negotiator, called Dr. John Condon, to discuss with the kidnappers (FBI, n.d.). After a series of exchange of notes between him and the kidnappers, he met with the kidnapper and gave them the $50,000 ransom for the release of the baby (Busch, 1970). The kidnappers disclosed that the baby was on a boat off the New York harbor (Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), n.d.). However, after a thorough search, there was nothing in the harbor. Two months after the kidnapping, the babys body was unintentionally found decaying in woods near the Lindbergh home (FBI, n.d.). The police then launched a manhunt for the kidnapper and they mainly concentrated on pursuing any ransom money that had been spent. In this case, the police took the role of investigation; they investigated this case of three accounts of crime, which included; kidnapping, murder, and fraudulent money exchange. The police from the Federal Bureau of Investigation traced their investigation to the conclusion of Bruno Richard Hauptmann as the main suspect. The suspect was who was arrested after the police found more evidence his house (Busch, 1970). He was taken to the court and the jury found him guilty of the charges on Feb. 13, 1933. The correction required him to confess to the charges, which he refused, and thus he was electrocuted on April 3, 1936. First appearance is a common thing that takes place in the court process. In this process, a judge makes a decision on whether there is justification to grant a bond an individual suspected of committing any given crime and informs the suspected offender of his/her rights in the trial process (United States Attorney Office, n.d.). During the first appearance in the Lindbergh Baby Case, the police and the team of prosecutors proved to the court that there was evidence beyond reasonable doubts that the crime was committed. The defendant

Branches of Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Branches of Philosophy Essay Metaphysics is a traditional branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world, although the term is not easily defined. Traditionally, metaphysics attempts to answer two basic questions in the broadest possible terms: What is there? What is it like? A person who studies metaphysics is called a metaphysicist or a metaphysician. The metaphysician attempts to clarify the fundamental notions by which people understand the world, e. g. , existence, objects and their properties, space and time, cause and effect, and possibility. A central branch of metaphysics is ontology, the investigation into the basic categories of being and how they relate to each other. Another central branch of metaphysics is cosmology, the study of the totality of all phenomena within the universe. Prior to the modern history of science, scientific questions were addressed as a part of metaphysics known as natural philosophy. Originally, the term science (Latin scientia) simply meant knowledge. The scientific method, however, transformed natural philosophy into an empirical activity deriving from experiment unlike the rest of philosophy. By the end of the 18th century, it had begun to be called science to distinguish it from philosophy. Thereafter, metaphysics denoted philosophical enquiry of a non-empirical character into the nature of existence. [6] Some philosophers of science, such as the neo-positivists, say that natural science rejects the study of metaphysics, while other philosophers of science strongly disagree. areas of philosophy, and most other philosophical schools turn back to it for basic definition. In that respect, the term metaphysics is a broad one, encompassing the philosophical ideas of cosmology and ontology. Metaphysics or First Philosophy The term â€Å"metaphysics† comes from Greek, meaning â€Å"after the Physics†. Although the term metaphysics generally makes sense in the way that it partially refers to things outisde of and beyond the natural sciences, this is not the origin of the term (as opposted to, say, meta-ethics, which refers to the nature of ethics itself). Instead, the term was used by later editors of Aristotle. Aristotle had written several books on matter and physics, and followed those volumes with work on ontology, and other broad subjects. These editors referred to them as â€Å"the books that came after the books on physics† or â€Å"metaphysics†. Aristotle himself refers to metaphysics as â€Å"first philosophy†. This term was also used by some later philosophers, such as Descartes, whose primary work on the subject of metaphysics is called Meditations on First Philosophy. * Branches of Metaphysics The main branches of metaphysics are: Ontology Cosmology Epistemology Epistemology is the area of philosophy that is concerned with knowledge. The main concerns of epistemology are the definition of knowledge, the sources of knowledge (innate ideas, experience, etc. , the process of acquiring knowledge and the limits of knowledge. Epistemology considers that knowledge can be obtained through experience and/or reason. It is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge and is also referred to as theory of knowledge. It questions what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, and the extent to which any given subject or entity can be known. Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief, and justification. * Defining Knowledge A primary concern of epistemology is the very definition of knowledge itself. The traditional definition, since Plato, is that knowledge is justified true belief, but recent evaluations of the concept have shown supposed counterexamples to this definition. In order to fully explore the nature of knowledge and how we come to know things, the various conceptions of what knowledge is must first be understood. * Sources of Knowledge The sources of knowledge must also be considered. Perception, reason, memory, testimony, introspection and innate ideas are all supposed sources of knowledge. Are they equally reliable? * Scepticism There also seems to be reason to doubt each of these sources of knowledge. Could it be that all knowledge is fallible? If that is the case, do we really know anything? This is the central question to the problem of scepticism. Logic Logic has two meanings: first, it describes the use of valid reasoning where it is used in most intellectual activities, including philosophy and science, or, second, it describes the study of modes of reasoning (those which are valid, and those which are fallacious). It is primarily studied in he disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science. It examines general forms that arguments may take. In mathematics, it is the study of valid inferences within some formal language. Logic is also studied in argumentation theory. Logic was studied in several ancient civilizations, including India, China, Persia and Greece. In the West, logic was established as a formal discipline by Aristotle, who gav e it a fundamental place in philosophy. The study of logic was part of the classical trivium, which also included grammar and rhetoric. In the East, logic was developed by Buddhists and Jainists. Logic is often divided into three parts, inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning. Aesthetics Aesthetics (also spelled ? sthetics) is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, culture and nature. More specific aesthetic theory, often with practical implications, relating to a particular branch of the arts is divided into areas of aesthetics such as art theory, literary theory, film theory and music theory. â€Å"Beauty is in the eye of the beholder† There are two basic standings on the nature of beauty: objective and subjective judgement. Subjective judgement of beauty suggests that beauty is not t he same to everyone — that which aesthetically pleases the observer is beautiful (to the observer). Alternatively, those partial to the objective description of beauty try to measaure it. They suggest that certain properties of an object create an inherent beauty — such as symmetry and balance. Both Plato and Aristotle supported the objective judgement. Some, such as Immanuel Kant, took a middle path, holding that beauty is of a subjective nature, but there are qualities of beauty which have universal validity. * Classical and Modern Aesthetics The classical concepts behind aesthetics saw beauty in nature, and that art should mimic those qualities found in nature. Aristotles Poetics describes this idea, which he develops from Platos teachings. Modern aesthetic ideas, including those of Kant, stress the creative and symbolic side of art — that nature does not always have to guide art for it to be beautiful. Ethics Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term comes from the Greek word ethos, which means character. Ethics is a complement to Aesthetics in the philosophy field of Axiology. In philosophy, ethics studies the moral behavior in humans and how one should act. Ethics may be divided into four major areas of study: Meta-ethics, about the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions and how their truth values (if any) may be determined; Normative ethics, about the practical means of determining a moral course of action; Applied ethics, about how moral outcomes can be achieved in specific situations; Descriptive ethics, also known as comparative ethics, is the study of peoples beliefs about morality; Ethics seeks to resolve questions dealing with human morality—concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. Political philosophy Political philosophy is the study of such topics as politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what they are, why (or even if) they are needed, what, if anything, makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever. In a vernacular sense, the term political philosophy often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics that does not necessarily belong to the technical discipline of philosophy. In short, political philosophy is the activity, as with all philosophy, whereby the conceptual apparatus behind such concepts as aforementioned are analyzed, in their history, intent, evolution and the like. Social philosophy Social philosophy is the philosophical study of questions about social behavior (typically, of humans). Social philosophy addresses a wide range of subjects, from individual meanings to legitimacy of laws, from the social contract to criteria for revolution, from the functions of everyday actions to the effects of science on culture, from changes in human demographics to the collective order of a wasps nest.

The Causes of Divorce :: Expository Cause Effect Essays

The Causes of Divorce There are as many theories on this issue as there are people offering them. The usual explanations are communication, compromise, and commitment, and it’s hard to disagree with them. Indeed, if both spouses were consistently able to communicate with each other, able and willing to compromise with each other, and 100% committed to their marriage, it’s hard to see how it could fail. The vexing question, of course is HOW do they foster communication, compromise, and commitment? Here the explanations diverge. For those with a fundamental faith foundation, the answer is clear. Marriages work if both spouses obey the principles of the faith. For a more prosaic explanation, check marriagebuilders.com, where therapist Willard Harley lays out a simple set of principles he says any couple can use to help their romance survive and thrive. The principle that creates the most stir with groups I address is from Cosmopolitan magazine a few years back, namely that the most reliable indicator of the success of a marriage is the extent to which both the husband and wife had close, long-term, platonic relationships with members of the opposite sex before they met. When you think about it, this makes sense. It’s startling to reflect on how little time husbands and wives spend in genuinely romantic interaction. They will spend most of their married life relating to each other as friends. If either or both of them lacks the essential skills or inclination to do that, the marriage is unlikely to thrive. One thing I feel strongly about is how little impact adultery has on divorce, and I know that I'm going against the tide here. I hear constantly from all-knowing observers - many of them fundamentalist Christians - who proclaim that if you look behind most divorces, you'll find an adulterous affair somewhere. That may be partially true, because many divorces do involve adultery, but I believe adultery to be a symptom, not a cause, of most divorces. Adultery is a reaction to abuse, and it is a tool of abuse. Adultery is the legal "gotcha," but I don't think it causes many divorces. I think the crud that drives husbands and wives apart causes divorces.

Crimes: Crime and Robert K. Merton Essay

Many researchers agree that, in the United States, most arrests for street crime involve people of lower class position. Why, according to Robert K. Merton, Albert Cohen, Walter Miller, and Elijah Anderson, would this be the case? How would a broader definition of crime (to include more white collar and corporate offenses) change the profile of the typical criminal? Robert Merton, Albert Colman, Walter Miller, and Elijah Anderson all agree that people of lower class commit most street crimes, because they are limited in their means to achieve their cultural goal of financial success. They lack proper schooling parental guidance and job opportunities that are available in upper class societies. Therefore, they cannot conform to the conventional means by which to achieve the Cultural goal of getting rich so they use unconventional means, Selling drugs and thievery, which means jail time. Albert Cohen who was a student of Merton believes that in many urban cities youths create sub-cultures. Groups of youths that is determined by who is feared more on the streets. They are delinquents who act out on impulse and do not think of what consequences there actions will bring and who are only loyal to themselves. Walter Miller lends into the theory of delinquency by defining it as having a need for excitement and a search for thrills. These ties in to Elijah Anderson who believes that jail is very likely for youths that adopt a Street Code which means to stand up and be able to take care of ones self by any means necessary. A broader definition of crime to include more white-collar and corporate offences will not change the profile of the typical criminal because society has a wide range of definitions for the behavior and actions of criminals. The definitions of crimes however should include the Social Status of a person and or group with legitimate reasons or circumstances for committing that crime.

History of Football Essay

Football, American, distinct type of football that developed in the United States in the 19th century from soccer (association football) and rugby football. Played by professionals and amateurs (generally male college or high school teams), football is one of the most popular American sports, attracting thousands of participants and millions of spectators annually. The forerunner of American football may have been a game played by the ancient Greeks, called harpaston. In this game there was no limit to the number of players. The object was to move a ball across a goal line by kicking, throwing, or running with it. Classical literature contains detailed accounts of the game, including its rougher elements, such as ferocious tackling. Most modern versions of football, however, originated in England, where a form of the game was known in the 12th century. In subsequent centuries football became so popular that various English monarchs, including Edward II and Henry VI, forbade the game because it took interest away from the military sport of archery. By the middle of the 19th century football had split into two distinct entities. Still popular today, these two sports included the football association game, or soccer (the word being a slang adaptation of the three letters, s-o-c, in Association), and rugby, in which players ran with the ball and tackled. Modern football evolved out of these two sports. The Playing Field and the Ball The football playing field is rectangular in shape, measuring 100 yd (91. 4 m) long and 53. 5 yd (48. 9 m) wide. At both ends of the 100-yard dimension, white lines called goal lines mark off the entrances to the end zones. Each team defends one end zone. A team must carry, pass, or kick the ball into the 10-yd (9-m) end zone on the opponents’ half of the field to score. Lines parallel to the end zones cross the field at 5-yd (4. 5-m) intervals. These lines give the field a resemblance to a large gridiron. Another set of lines, known as the sidelines, runs along both sides of the field. In addition, two rows of lines, called hash marks, run parallel to the sidelines. The hash marks are 53 ft 4 in (16. 3 m) from each sideline in college and high school football, and 70 ft 9 in (21. 6 m) from each sideline in the National Football League (NFL). Each play must begin on or between the hash marks. Before each play, the officials place the ball either between the hash marks or on the hash mark closest to the end of the previous play. Situated in the middle of the rear line of each end zone are goalposts, consisting of a 10-ft (3-m) vertical pole topped by a horizontal crossbar from which two vertical upright posts extend. In college and professional football, the posts are 18 ft 6 in (about 5. 6 m) apart. The football consists of an inflated rubber bladder encased in a leather or rubber cover. The ball is an extended spheroid, having a circumference of 28. 5 in (72. 4 cm) around the long axis and 21. 25 in (54 cm) around the short axis. It weighs between 14 and 15 oz (397 and 425 g). Playing Time A game of football is divided into four periods, known as quarters, each consisting of 15 minutes of playing time. The first two periods constitute the first half; the second two comprise the second half. Between the halves, a rest period, usually lasting about 15 minutes, is permitted the players, who may leave the field. The teams change halves of the field at the end of each quarter. The clocks stop at the end of each quarter and at certain other times, when particular events occur or when designated by the officials. The Players Football is played by two opposing teams, each fielding 11 players. Each team tries to move the ball down the field to score in the end zone defended by its opponents. During a football game the teams are designated as the offensive team (the team in possession of the ball) and the defensive team (the team defending a goal line against the offensive team). Players involved in kicking situations are known as the special teams. The 11 players of the offensive team are divided into two groups: 7 linemen, who play on the line of scrimmage (an imaginary line designating the position of the ball) and a backfield of 4 players, called backs, who stand in various positions behind the linemen. The lineman whose position is in the middle of the line is called the center. On his left is the left guard and on his right is the right guard. On the left of the left guard is the left tackle, and on the right of the right guard is the right tackle; similarly, on the ends of the line are the tight end and the split end. The back who usually  stands directly behind the center and directs the play of the offensive team is known as the quarterback. In a balanced backfield formation, or â€Å"T-formation,† the fullback stands behind the quarterback, and the left and right halfbacks stand to either side of the fullback. Teams often use wide receivers in the place of tight ends, split ends, halfbacks, or fullbacks. Wide receivers line up on the line of scrimmage but wide of the rest of the formation. The defensive team consists of a row of linemen, who comprise the defensive line, a row of linebackers, and a collection of defensive backs, known as the secondary. The defensive line can use any number of players, though most teams use three or four linemen. Defensive linemen principally are responsible for stopping the opposition’s rushing attack and, in passing situations, putting pressure on the quarterback. The linebackers line up behind the defensive line and, depending on the situation, are used to stop runners, pressure the quarterback, or cover the opposition’s receivers. Teams usually employ three or four linebackers. The secondary is comprised of cornerbacks, who cover wide receivers, and safeties, who cover receivers, offer support in stopping the rushing attack, and pressure the quarterback. The secondary commonly consists of two cornerbacks and two safeties. Protective Equipment To protect themselves from the often violent bodily contact that characterizes football, players wear elaborate equipment, including lightweight plasticized padding covering the thighs, hips, shoulders, knees, and often the forearms and hands. Players also wear plastic helmets with guards that cover most of the face. The Officials Play is supervised by impartial officials. Professional and major college football programs use seven officials: a referee, an umpire, a linesman, a field judge, a back judge, a line judge, and a side judge. The officials carry whistles and yellow penalty flags. They blow the whistles or throw the flags to indicate that an infraction of the rules has been committed. The referee is in charge of the game at all levels of play. The referee supervises the other officials, decides on all matters not under other officials’ specific jurisdiction, and enforces penalties. The referee indicates when the ball is dead (out of play) and when it may again be put into play, and uses hand signals to indicate specific decisions and penalties. The umpire makes decisions on questions concerning the players’ equipment, their conduct, and their positioning. The principal duty of the linesman is to mark the position of the ball at the end of each play. The linesman has assistants who measure distances gained or lost, using a device consisting of two vertical markers connected by a chain or cord 10 yd (9 m) long. The linesman must particularly watch for violations of the rule requiring players to remain in certain positions before the ball is put into play. The field judge times the game, using a stopwatch for this purpose. In some cases, the stadium scoreboard has a clock that is considered official. Game Procedure At the beginning of each game, the referee tosses a coin in the presence of the two team captains to determine which team kicks off or receives the kickoff. At the start of the second half, these conditions are reversed—that is, the team that kicks off in the first half receives the kickoff to start the second half. During the kickoff, the ball is put in play by a place-kick from the kicking team’s 35-yd (32-m) line, or the 30-yd (27. 4-m) line in the National Football League (NFL). The NFL kickoff was moved from the 35-yd line in 1994 to increase the importance of the kickoff return. The kicking team lines up at or behind the ball, while the opponents spread out over their territory in a formation calculated to help them to catch the ball and run it back effectively. If the kick stays within the boundaries of the field, any player on the receiving team may catch the ball, or pick it up on a bounce, and run with it. As the player runs, the player may be tackled by any opponent and stopped, known as being downed. The player carrying the ball is considered downed when one knee touches the ground. Tacklers use their hands and arms to stop opponents and throw them to the ground. After the ball carrier is stopped, the referee blows a whistle to stop play and places the ball on the spot where the runner was downed. Play also stops when the ball carrier runs out of bounds. A scrimmage (action while the ball is in play) then takes place. Before scrimmage begins, the team on offense usually gathers in a circle, called a huddle, and discusses the next play it will use to try to advance the ball. A coach either signals the play choice  to the team from the sidelines, or the team’s quarterback chooses from among the dozens of rehearsed plays in the team’s repertoire. The defensive team also forms a huddle and discusses its next attempt to slow the offense. Each play is designated by code numbers or words, called signals. After the teams come out of their respective huddles, they line up opposite each other on the line of scrimmage. If the quarterback analyzes the defensive alignment and decides that the chosen play should be changed, the quarterback can call an audible and shout the coded directions for a new play. Play begins when the center crouches over the ball and, on a spoken signal, snaps it—generally to the quarterback—by handing it between his legs. Based upon the chosen play, the quarterback can pass the ball, hand it off to a teammate, or run with it. During the scrimmage, the players on the offensive team may check the defenders using their bodies, but they are constrained by specific rules regarding the use of their hands or arms. The player running with the ball, however, is allowed to use an arm to ward off potential tacklers. The offensive players check defenders, or try to force them out of the way, by performing a maneuver known as blocking. Good blocking is considered a fundamental technique in football. Perhaps the most spectacular offensive play is the forward pass, in which the ball is thrown in a forward direction to an eligible player. The ball is nearly always thrown by the quarterback, and those who may catch it include the other three backs and the two ends. A forward pass may be made only during scrimmage, and then only from behind the line of scrimmage. A lateral pass may be made anywhere on the field anytime the ball is in play. The defending team tries to prevent the attacking team from advancing the ball. The defending players may use their arms and hands in their attempt to break through the opponents’ line to reach the player with the ball. The defending team tries to keep the offense from gaining any distance, or to stop the offense for a loss by tackling the ball carrier before the ball carrier reaches the line of scrimmage. The offense must advance the ball at least 10 yards (9 m) in four tries, called downs. After each play, the teams line up again and a new scrimmage takes place. If the team on offense fails to travel 10 yards (9 m) in four downs, it must surrender the ball to its opponent after the fourth down. A team will often punt on fourth down if it hasn’t gained at least 10 yards (9 m) in its previous three tries. In punting, the kicker drops the ball and kicks it before it touches the ground. By punting, a team can send the ball farther away from its own end zone before surrendering it, thus weakening the opponent’s field position. Methods of Scoring. The object of the game is to score more points than the opposing team within the regulation playing time. In college football, a game can end in a tie if both teams have scored the same number of points at the end of regulation time. In case of a tie in an exhibition or regular-season professional game, the teams play an overtime period, known as sudden death, in which the first team to score is declared the winner. If neither team has scored at the end of this 15-minute overtime period, then the tie is allowed to stand. In professional playoff games no ties are allowed, and the teams play until one scores. A team scores a touchdown when one of its players carries the ball into the opposing team’s end zone or catches a pass in the end zone. A touchdown is worth 6 points. After a team has scored a touchdown, it tries for an extra-point conversion. This is an opportunity to score an additional one or two points with no time elapsing off the game clock. In college football, the offensive team lines up 3 yd (2. 7 m) from the goal line of the opponents and passes, kicks, or runs with the ball. A running or passing conversion in which the ball crosses the goal line counts for 2 points. A conversion by place-kick that propels the ball between the goalposts and over the crossbar counts for 1 point. In professional football, the offensive team lines up 2 yd (1. 8 m) from the goal line. A conversion attempted by place-kicking the ball is worth 1 point. In 1994 the NFL introduced the running or passing 2-point conversion. On offense, teams may also attempt to score by kicking a field goal, which counts for 3 points. A field goal is scored by means of a place-kick, in which one player holds the ball upright on the ground for a teammate to kick. For a successful field goal, the ball must be kicked between the goalposts and over the crossbar. After each field goal and extra-point conversion, the scoring team must kick off to its opponents. Finally, a defensive team earns two points for a safety when it causes the team on offense to end a play in possession of the ball behind its own goal line. If the offensive team downs the ball behind its line intentionally, in certain situations, such as after receiving a kickoff, the play is known as a touchback and does not count in the scoring. When the offensive team suffers a safety, it must punt the ball to the opponents to restart play. Modern Football American football was made popular by teams representing colleges and universities. These teams dominated the game for most of the first 100 years of football in the United States. Even today, despite greatly increased interest in professional football, intercollegiate contests—played by some 640 team—are attended by more than 35 million spectators each year. Many college stadiums hold more than 50,000 spectators; one stadium, at the University of Michigan, holds more than 100,000. Many of the major universities are now grouped in conferences, such as the Big Ten (northern midwest), the Big Eight (midwest), the Pacific Ten (western states), the Southeastern Conference, and the Ivy League (northeast). The birth date of football in the United States is generally regarded by football historians as November 6, 1869, when teams from Rutgers and Princeton universities met in New Brunswick, New Jersey, for the first intercollegiate football game. In the early games, each team used 25 players at a time. By 1873 the number was reduced to 20 players, in 1876 to 15 players, and in 1880 to 11 players, where it has remained. In the 1900s, college football became one of the country’s most popular sports spectacles. Ranked among the greatest United States sports heroes of the 20th century are such student athletes as Jim Thorpe of Carlisle Institute; George Gipp of the University of Notre Dame; Red Grange of the University of Illinois; Tom Harmon of the University of Michigan; Doak Walker of Southern Methodist University; Glenn Davis and Doc Blanchard, the â€Å"Touchdown Twins† of Army (the U. S. Military Academy); Joe Namath of the University of Alabama; and O. J. Simpson of the University of Southern California. In 1935 the Downtown Athletic Club of New York City established an award honoring one of the outstanding college football coaches in the country, John William Heisman. Heisman is credited with legalizing the forward pass in 1906. The John W. Heisman Memorial Trophy is awarded annually to the outstanding college player of the year, as decided by a national poll of sportswriters. After World War II ended in 1945, college athletes began to receive football scholarships, often paying the player’s room, board, tuition, and incidental expenses while enrolled in college. College Bowl Games and National Champions. College teams generally play about 11 games during the fall. The best college teams are awarded trips to so-called bowl games, matching outstanding teams in games that conclude the season’s competition. The tradition was begun in 1902 at Pasadena, California, when Stanford University invited the University of Michigan to come to California for a New Year’s Day contest. This event soon became the celebrated Rose Bowl game. Bowl games now represent the climax of the college season. Other notable bowl games include the Cotton Bowl in Dallas, Texas; the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida; and the Sugar Bowl in New Orleans, Louisiana. In recognition of the great public interest in these games, major corporations now sponsor many of the bowls. Today, the champion college team is selected by national polls of coaches and sportswriters. In the accompanying table, the teams from 1889 to 1923 were Helms Athletic Foundation selections; from 1924 to 1930, Rissman Trophy winners; from 1931 to 1935, Rockne Memorial Trophy winners; from 1936 to today, Associated Press (AP) poll selections; and from 1950 to today, United Press International (UPI) poll selections. In cases where two teams won the honor in separate AP and UPI polls, a note has been made. Many members of the football community debate whether a poll of writers and coaches should determine a champion or whether the colleges should institute a more formal playoff system. Detractors of a playoff system argue that with such a system, the popular bowl games would lose their identity. In addition, players’ seasons would extend by one or two months, cutting into academic time. However, advocates for a playoff point to the controversial 1993 season in which the Florida State Seminoles won the number-one ranking over Notre Dame, a team that beat the Seminoles convincingly earlier in the season. Beginnings of Professional Football The first professional football game in the United States took place in 1895 in the town of Latrobe, Pennsylvania, between a team representing Latrobe and a team from Jeannette, Pennsylvania. In the following ten years many professional teams were formed, including the Duquesnes of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; the Olympics of McKeesport, Pennsylvania; the Bulldogs of Canton, Ohio; and the team of Massillon, Ohio. Among noted college players who took up the professional game during its early years were Willie Heston (formerly at the University of Michigan), Jim Thorpe (Carlisle Institute), Knute Rockne (University of Notre Dame), and Fritz Pollard (Brown University). The professional game attracted only limited public support during its first 30 years. The first league of professional football teams was the American Professional Football Association, formed in 1920. The admission fee was $100 per team. The teams pledged not to use any student player who still had collegiate eligibility left, as the good will of the colleges was believed to be essential to survival. The teams also agreed not to tamper with each other’s players. Jim Thorpe, a player-coach for one of the teams, became president of the league during its first year. The American Professional Football Association gave way in 1922 to the National Football League (NFL). Red Grange, the famous halfback from the University of Illinois, provided a tremendous stimulus for the league when he joined the Chicago Bears in 1925 and toured the United States that year and the next. His exciting play drew large crowds. Thereafter, professional football attracted larger numbers of first-rate college players, and the increased patronage made the league economically viable. Strategically, the early NFL game was hardly distinguishable from college football at that time. There was no attempt to break away from collegiate playbooks or rule books. For 13 years the NFL followed the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Rules Committee recommendations. In the league’s early years, players considered the low-paying NFL a part-time job and held other jobs during the day. Thus, while college coaches could drill their players daily for hours, professional football coaches arranged practices in the evenings, sometimes only three or four times a week. Development of Offensive Strategies The offensive techniques and formations prevalent in the contemporary game developed from the ideas of early and mid-20th century coaches such as Walter Camp, Alonzo Stagg, Pop Warner, Fielding â€Å"Hurry Up† Yost, Bob Zuppke, Knute Rockne, and Paul Brown. Following very few historical precedents, these men innovated unique strategies that changed the nature of football forever. Stagg, operating out of the early T-formation, originated the between-the-legs snap from center to quarterback and put a player in motion in the backfield before the snap of the ball. In 1906 Warner unbalanced his line, placing four players on one side of the center and two on the other side, while shifting the backfield into a wing formation. The quarterback functioned as a blocker, set close behind the line and a yard wide of the center. At the same depth, but outside the line, was the wingback. Deep in the backfield was the tailback, who received most of the snaps, and in front and to the side was the fullback. This formation became known as the â€Å"Single-Wing,† and it remained football’s basic formation until the 1940s. From the Single-Wing emerged Warner’s â€Å"Double-Wing,† with wingbacks set wide on either side of the line. This formation forced the defense to spread itself across the field in order to protect against the pass, thus creating favorable conditions for the offense to execute unexpected running plays. The strategy is the same as today’s â€Å"draw† and â€Å"end-around† concepts, but Warner’s teams could also pass from the formation. Warner would also open up the lines completely, splitting the ends into modern â€Å"slot† positions, inside the wingbacks. This was a four-receiver formation that evolved into the â€Å"Shotgun† offense, popularized by the San Francisco 49ers of 1960. Like the double-wing, the â€Å"Shotgun† utilized two wideouts and two slot players, with the passer set deep in the backfield next to a running back. The NFL’s newest formation of the 1990s, the â€Å"Run and Shoot† offense, also resembles Warner’s formation. With Warner’s innovations, wing formations came to dominate the NFL. Coach Zuppke at Illinois ran single- and double-wing formations, often sending four or five receivers downfield in pass patterns. Some teams would use a short-punt formation, with the quarterback and wings set on different sides, providing a more balanced look. At Notre Dame in 1923 and 1924, Rockne instituted his famous Four Horsemen offense. At the beginning of a play, Rockne set up the backs in a four-square, box alignment on one side. Then, in the famous â€Å"Notre Dame Shift,† the backs would shift out of the box and into a single or double wing. In later years, other coaches imitated Rockne’s innovation and achieved similar success. For example, former Washington Redskins’ coach Joe Gibbs implemented an offensive strategy called the â€Å"Explode Package. † Modeled after Rockne’s Notre Dame Shift, the Explode Package helped the Redskins defeat the Miami Dolphins in the 1983 Super Bowl. In Gibbs’s system, the backs and receivers would jump into new positions before the snap, thus unsettling the defense. Although talented, the quarterbacks of the 1930s and parts of the 1940s seldom completed 50 percent of their passes, while many were even less successful. A major cause of these low percentages was the primitive nature of pass-blocking schemes. With little protection, passers always had to throw while avoiding incoming rushers. In the 1940s Paul Brown, the coach of the Cleveland Browns, installed a blocking system which transformed the passing game forever. Brown changed the system by arranging the linemen in the form of a cup. They pushed most incoming pass-rushers to the outside. Anyone who penetrated the line was met by a firmly planted fullback named Marion Motley. From that point on, the passing game achieved a new significance. Other teams implemented strong blocking lines, providing the quarterback with more time to release the ball. The contemporary game of the 1980s and 1990s is noted for its exciting and effective passing plays in both the professional and college ranks. Artificial turf, the surface in many of the nation’s stadiums, provides excellent footing for quarterbacks and receivers. With strong protection, talented quarterbacks make a perceivable difference to a game. For example, quarterback Joe Montana keyed the San Francisco 49ers’ three Super Bowl victories in the 1980s. Montana, who benefited from good protection, could instinctively read defenses and had the ability to deliver the ball accurately to his receivers while on the move. In college football, the University of Miami Hurricanes dominated the game in the late 1980s with a flashy passing game and a quick defense that could react effectively to the pass. Development of Defensive Strategies One striking aspect of modern football is its emphasis on defense as well as offense. This trend began after World War II (1939-1945), when college teams were allowed free substitution of players—that is, a player could enter and leave the game an unlimited number of times, as long as the ball was not in play during the substitution. This feature of the game led to the modern two-platoon system, in which one group of 11 players enters the game to play offense and a second group enters to play defense. Such a system has fostered the development of individual skills and specialization among players. Defensive football has acquired an extensive terminology of its own. In some ways defense is more complicated than offense, because defensive teams have fewer restrictions on their manner of lining up. Generally, however, the defensive formation is determined by the way the offense lines up. For example, when defending against opponents who are expected to throw many forward passes, a team might use a formation with a four-player line of two ends and two tackles. Three linebackers would stand directly behind the front four. In addition, two cornerbacks placed wider and farther back could defend against mid-range assaults. Two safeties would position themselves deeper to protect against longer aerial attacks. Most of the innovative thinking by coaches in the NFL during the 1970s came on defense. Offensive statistics plummeted as defenses dominated. The newer game demanded speed at every position, in addition to strength and bulk. Great linebacker units with catchy names such as Doomsday in Dallas, Pittsburgh’s Steel Curtain, Minnesota’s Purple People Eaters, and the Rams’ Fearsome Foursome dominated offenses. Teams turned the free safety position over to ferocious hitters such as the Raiders’ Jack Tatum and Dallas’ Cliff Harris. Rough, physical cornerbacks such as Pittsburgh’s Mel Blount and Oakland’s Willie Brown employed tight bump-and-run techniques on receivers downfield. Professional Football Today. The present-day NFL game is immensely popular. It is played during the late summer, through autumn, and into January. Professional teams play 4 exhibition games before the start of the regular season, followed by 16 games in the regular season and then playoff games, when they qualify for the playoffs. Teams play one game each week, using the time between games to recover, practice, and prepare for the next game. Each team receives one week without a game, known as a bye, during the season. The NFL is a big business for players, owners, advertisers, and other industries tied to the sport. NFL franchises generate huge revenues for host cities, in addition to promoting civic pride and national exposure. Thus, cities often compete for teams, offering prospective teams bigger and better stadiums, guaranteed fan support, and various economic incentives. In the 1980s three NFL teams relocated: the Raiders moved from Oakland, California, to Los Angeles in 1982; the Colts moved from Baltimore, Maryland, to Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1984; and the Cardinals moved from Saint Louis, Missouri, to Phoenix, Arizona, in 1988. Other teams have agreed to stay only with the promise of new facilities by their host cities. Throughout the years, other consortiums have sought to capitalize on the economic potential of the sport. For three years in the 1980s a new professional spring league, the United States Football League (USFL), competed with the NFL. The NFL lost players to the USFL, and NFL teams had to pay higher salaries to keep other players from leaving. However, the USFL soon folded, with much of its more talented personnel entering the NFL. Super Bowl The Super Bowl is the final contest of the professional season and determines the league’s annual champion. Currently the Super Bowl routinely finishes among the all-time top 50 programs in television ratings, and the 1994 game reached an estimated 750 million viewers around the world. Now probably the most important single-day sporting event in the United States, the Super Bowl had more modest beginnings. In 1967 the champions of the American Football League (which merged with the NFL in 1970) and the NFL met in what was called the AFL-NFL World Championship Game. The name was later shortened to Super Bowl, named after a child’s toy, the Super Ball. In this first game, the Green Bay Packers beat the Kansas City Chiefs, 35-10. The Los Angeles Coliseum, site of the game, fell far short of a sellout, although tickets were only $10 each. In comparison, the highest ticket price at the 1994 Super Bowl reached $250, with scalpers illegally charging more than twice that much. Rule Changes and Modern Developments The game of football has a history of constant rule changes. Rule changes have been implemented to bolster the excitement of the game of football and to increase the game’s safety. By 1906 the game was extremely rough, and many injuries and some deaths had occurred. Educators considered dropping the sport despite its popularity on campuses. United States President Theodore Roosevelt, an ardent advocate of strenuous sports, declared that the game must be made safer. As a result, football leaders revamped the game, and many of the rougher tactics were outlawed. In a constant attempt to maintain public interest in the game, NFL rulemakers review trends in their sport. For example, in the early 1970s, the rulemakers brought the hash marks in closer to the center of the field to give offenses more room to throw wide. The move, which increased scoring and made the game more exciting, also helped bolster the running game. Ten NFL runners gained more than 1000 yards in one season (1972) for the first time in history. During the next season, Buffalo Bills’ running back O. J. Simpson rushed for more than 2000 yards, the first time a player had gained that many yards in a single season. However, the passing game eventually suffered as defenses quickly adjusted. The Pittsburgh Steelers had a stranglehold on the NFL during the 1970s, with four Super Bowl victories. The dominant defensive athletes the Steelers put on the field shut down the wide-open passing attacks that had developed in the previous era. By 1977 scoring was the lowest it had been since 1942, while offensive touchdowns had fallen to their lowest levels since 1938. The rulemakers enacted serious measures after this low-scoring 1977 season, fearing a loss of public interest in the defense-dominated game. They established a zone of only five yards from the line of scrimmage in which a bump by a pass defender was permitted.